Tārīkh-i falsafah-yi Rātlij 7: sadah-yi nūzdahum: Persiska (Farsi) 1398

The history of philosophy, as its name implies, expresses the unity of two very different disciplines, each of which imposes serious restrictions on the other. The history of philosophy as an exercise in the history of ideas requires that a person with a "perspective based on the era" has a complete understanding of how the investigated thinkers answered their questions and their conceptual framework for examining issues and hypotheses and What were their goals, and their blind spots and mistakes. But as an exercise in philosophy, we are engaged in tasks beyond description. There is a decisive critical aspect to our endeavors: we seek as much persuasion as we seek to develop an argument, for this is as much about the issues that occupy our minds as it is about the evolution of thought. Philosophical influence. The 19th century was a time of intense intellectual activity, accompanied by advances in science, mathematics, and psychology, which gradually established itself as a discipline independent of philosophy. Philosophical debates were raised about the nature of the scientific method and whether, and to what extent, the understanding of human behavior and human society requires the adoption of methods of observation and experimentation, methods that were common among the natural sciences. Different philosophical theories about the nature of reality, the foundations of knowledge and ethics, and the limits of individual freedom were systematically developed, and many of these theories are still relevant in contemporary philosophical debates. The philosophers discussed in the present volume include those who belong to both the "analytic" and "continental" traditions, as well as the influential American pragmatists of today. Each chapter is written by a different author, and topics are presented in the context of the period in which they emerged while considering the relevance of these topics to current philosophical interests. Several philosophers are examined in more than one chapter, in different but mutually illuminating contexts.